What Percent of Beef Produced in the Usa
Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 2018 Jul; 31(7): 1007–1016.
Current situation and time to come trends for beefiness production in the U.s.a. — A review
James S. Drouillard
1Department of Beast Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
Received 2016 Jun 8; Accepted 2018 Jun 8.
Abstruse
USA beef production is characterized by a diversity of climates, ecology conditions, animal phenotypes, management systems, and a multiplicity of nutritional inputs. The USA beef herd consists of more lxxx breeds of cattle and crosses thereof, and the industry is divided into distinct, but ofttimes overlapping sectors, including seedstock product, cow-dogie product, stocker/backgrounding, and feedlot. Exception for male dairy calves, production is predominantly pastoral-based, with young stock spending relatively cursory portions of their life in feedlots. The beef manufacture is very applied science driven, utilizing reproductive direction strategies, genetic improvement technologies, exogenous growth promoting compounds, vaccines, antibiotics, and feed processing strategies, focusing on improvements in efficiency and price of product. Young steers and heifers are grain-based diets fed for an average of v months, mostly in feedlots of 1,000 head chapters or more than, and typically are slaughtered at 15 to 28 months of historic period to produce tender, well-marbled beef. Per capita beef consumption is nearly 26 kg annually, over half of which is consumed in the form of ground products. Beef exports, which are increasingly important, consist primarily of loftier value cuts and variety meats, depending on destination. In recent years, adverse climatic conditions (i.e., draught), a shrinking agricultural workforce, emergence of food-borne pathogens, concerns over evolution of antimicrobial resistance, beast welfare/well-being, ecology impact, consumer perceptions of healthfulness of beef, consumer perceptions of food animal production practices, and alternative uses of traditional feed grains have become increasingly important with respect to their impact on both beef production and demand for beef products. Similarly, changing consumer demographics and globalization of beef markets have dictated changes in the types of products demanded by consumers of USA beef, both domestically and away. The industry is highly adaptive, however, and responds quickly to evolving economical signals.
Keywords: Beef, Production Systems, Growth Promotion, Carcass Quality
INTRODUCTION
Beef production systems in the United States are characterized by a wide range of climates, environmental conditions, fauna phenotypes, management practices, and a multiplicity of nutritional inputs. In contrast to international perceptions, U.s.a. product systems are, with the notable exception of male dairy calves, predominantly pastoral-based, with young stock typically spending relatively brief portions of their life in confinement facilities for finishing on loftier-concentrate diets. Beef production at the cow-dogie level is widely distributed, and exists in all 50 states, spanning the range from tropical savannah to Arctic tundra, temperate plains, and mount pastures. Vast differences in geographies and climatic conditions necessitate the use of a broad spectrum of brute phenotypes that are suited to these environments, encompassing both Bos taurus and Bos indicus breeds and crosses thereof. The feedlot stage of production, which normally is between 100 and 300 days duration, is heavily concentrated inside the interior of the continental USA, and relies heavily on cereal grains and grain byproducts produced within this area as predominant feed resources, and feedlot cattle about commonly are marketed at ages ranging from 15 to 28 months. Production of beef in the U.Southward. historically has been very applied science driven, utilizing reproductive management strategies, genetic improvement technologies, exogenous growth promoting compounds, vaccines, antibiotics, and feed processing strategies, all of which focused on improving efficiency and(or) decreasing cost of beef production. In more contempo years, adverse climatic atmospheric condition (i.e., draught), a shrinking agricultural workforce, control of nutrient-borne pathogens, concerns over development of antimicrobial resistance, animal welfare, animal well-existence, ecology impact of confinement feeding operations, consumer perceptions of healthfulness of beef, consumer perceptions of nutrient beast production practices, and alternative uses for traditional feed grains accept become increasingly important with respect to their touch on both beef product and demand for beef products. Similarly, changing consumer demographics and globalization of beefiness markets have dictated changes in the types of products demanded from producers of U.S. beef. Beefiness product systems are thus increasingly dynamic in their nature, and poised to exploit new market opportunities by altering product practices to meet changing consumer demands.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF U.S. COW-Dogie OPERATIONS AND FEEDLOTS
Equally of January 31, 2018, total USA inventory of beef cows was estimated at 31.7 one thousand thousand caput, with cow-calf operations in all 50 states [1]. The beefiness cow inventory fluctuates considerably from year to year, as shown in Figure one, and tin can be influenced heavily by market weather condition and environmental factors, such equally persistent draught conditions. In the USA, nigh 320 million hectares are used for livestock grazing [ii], which is equivalent to 41% of the full country area of the continental USA. Approximately 55% of all beef cows are maintained in the Central region of the continental USA [three], which is characterized by vast native grasslands and expansive production of row crops such as corn, soybeans, wheat, grain sorghum, and other crops. Roughly 20% of the national herd is in the Western region, commonly utilizing expansive state areas that are federally endemic and leased to beefiness producers by government agencies. The Southeastern region, often typified by smaller production units that rely heavily on improved pastures, also is home to approximately 20% of the national herd. The remaining five% are interspersed throughout the Northeast, Alaska, and Hawaii. Each of these regions makes use of very different systems of beef product, owing to a divergent range of climates and feed resources in each expanse. For example, western herds often employ federal lands for grazing in the spring and summertime, and cattle then are removed from federal lands and overwintered on privately-owned pastures and/or fed harvested forages until the beginning of the next grazing cycle. By contrast, operations in the Primal region ofttimes make apply of a mixture of native grass pastures, crop residues, harvested forages, and protein concentrates to sustain their cow herds.
US beef cow inventory on Jan 1, from 1938 to 2018. Source: United States Section of Agriculture [1].
Feedlots, unlike cow-dogie operations, are far more than concentrated geographically, with over 72% of feedlot production occurring in the 5-country area [4] of Nebraska (xix.8%), Texas (xviii.9%), Kansas (17.5%), Iowa (9.0%), and Colorado (7.ane%). Concentration of feedlots in this area is largely driven by access to cereal grains and grain byproducts that predominate the diets of finishing cattle. Other important regions for cattle feeding have adult throughout the country in response to availability of low-price feedstuffs, particularly byproduct feeds. For case, the Washington-Idaho region is a major site for production and processing of potatoes, fruits, and vegetables as foods for humans. Cattle feeding operations take developed in response to availability of large quantities of processed food residues in this region, and represent an of import means for disposal of these byproducts, thereby creating additional value to the nutrient chain.
CATTLE BREEDS USED FOR Beefiness Product IN THE Usa
The The states beef herd is very heterogeneous in nature, consisting of more than than 80 breeds and crosses thereof, and reflecting the diverseness of environments in which they are produced. According to the well-nigh recent report on breed registrations past the National Pedigreed Livestock Quango [5], member breed associations with the greatest number of registrations were Angus, Hereford, Simmental, Red Angus, Charolais, Gelbvieh, Brangus, Limousin, Beefmaster, Shorthorn, and Brahman. While this list gives some sense of the diversity of cattle types in the U.S., most cattle fed for slaughter actually are crossbreds, with 60% or more having some degree of Angus influence. Dairy breeds, virtually notably Holsteins, also brand upwards a substantial portion of U.s.a. feedlot cattle, with every bit many every bit 3 to 4 million dairy calves existence fed in U.s. feedlots each year.
United states of america SYSTEM FOR Beefiness Production
The USA organisation of beef production is highly segmented, often resulting in several changes of ownership between the time animals are weaned and slaughtered. Seedstock operations primarily produce bulls that are used to service cows in commercial cow-calf operations. The main product of cow-calf operations is weaned calves, which are sold to stocker operators, backgrounding lots, or feedlots. Figure ii illustrates the possible paths that animals may take through the beef production concatenation earlier being slaughtered. Calves from cow-calf operations generally follow ane of ii paths. They can exist transferred directly to feedlots at or around the time of weaning, in which case they are referred to every bit "calf-feds" that remain in the feedlot for 240 days or more before being harvested. Dogie-fed may make upward 40% or more of the fed cattle population in the Us. The largest share of the calf population, usually 60% or more, is commencement placed into a backgrounding or stocker operation, or a combination thereof, to be grown for a menstruum of time before fattened on high-concentrate diets. These animals are grown mostly using forage-based diets and so transferred to feedlots when they are a yr or more of age, and thus are referred to every bit "yearlings". Stocker (grazing) and backgrounding (drylot) systems rely heavily on forages as the predominant component of the diet, supplementing poly peptide, free energy, vitamins, and minerals every bit needed to optimize cattle performance. A relatively modest proportion of backgrounded cattle are grown at minor rates of gain using limit-feeding programs in which they are fed high-concentrate diets, similar to a high-energy finishing diet, but in restricted amounts to foreclose premature fattening.
Schematic for period of cattle through the U.Due south. beefiness product chain, illustrating direct entry from cow-calf and dairy operations into feedlots (blue lines) and abattoirs (cherry-red lines), or following a growing phase (purple lines) carried out in specialized facilities (calf ranches, backgrounding operations, or stocker operations).
Male calves from dairies also constitute an important com ponent of the beef cattle market. These calves are gathered from dairies at an early historic period (unremarkably virtually three days) and transferred to specialized rearing operations known every bit dogie ranches. Calves typically are confined to individual stalls to foreclose intermingling, as they are highly susceptible to affliction at this stage of their lives. Calves are fed a combination of milk replacers, grain, and pocket-sized amounts of forage until weaning at 40 to 80 days of age, then transferred to group housing within the aforementioned performance. These animals ordinarily are sold to feedlots when they reach a weight of approximately 150 to 200 kg.
Choose beefiness and dairy animals likewise contribute to the beef sup ply, and most unremarkably are shipped from seedstock, cow-calf, or dairy operations direct to abattoirs for harvest. A relatively small-scale and variable proportion is sent to feedlots to exist fed high-energy diets for 50 to 100 days before beingness slaughtered. The number of cull animals that are fattened in feedlots before being slaughtered varies essentially from year to year, and is largely a function of the relationships betwixt feed costs, beef supply, and beef demand.
Male person cattle in the USA are nigh always fed every bit steers, and abattoirs apply heavy discounts to intact males or males that display avant-garde secondary sex activity characteristics. Castration effectively decreases the occurrence of undesirable social behaviors and meat quality characteristics, such as dark, firm, and dry beef. Muscle from steers as well contains less connective tissue than that from bulls, and steers deposit more intramuscular fatty (marbling) than bulls. Castration can occur at various times between birth and later entry into feedlots, with the vast majority existence castrated before or near the age of weaning. A relatively pocket-sized proportion is castrated after entry into feedlots, though this do is heavily discouraged and significant discounts are applied to intact feeder cattle due to loftier morbidity rates in animals that are castrated at an advanced age. In terms of methodology, balderdash calves are most frequently castrated surgically or past banding.
Heifers fed in feedlots constitute approximately 28% to 30% of beef supply in the Usa [4]. Compared to steers, nevertheless, most feedlot heifers are fed intact, and while some are ovariectomized, it is far more common to feed melengestrol acetate (a synthetic grade of progesterone) to inhibit rut behavior.
Market conditions at the time of weaning can profoundly im pact the age at which cattle are placed into feedlots. Size of the national herd is cyclical in nature, owing to fluctuations in weather (such every bit extended draught periods), and fluctuating prices. When overall size of the national beefiness herd is relatively low, fewer animals are available, creating competition between stocker and backgrounding operations and feedlots for supply of cattle. Relationships between prices of grain and forages also can influence age of entry into feedlots. When costs for pasture and harvested forages are depression in comparing to grains, producers accept incentive to grow cattle before placing them into feedlots. By contrast, when grain prices are low relative to prices for forages, a greater proportion of eligible animals may enter the feedlot directly.
Weather condition also plays a very significant office in the age at which cattle are placed into feedlots. Environmental temperatures and atmospheric precipitation patterns plain touch both quantity and quality of forages produced, so it stands to reason that adverse climatic atmospheric condition can influence elapsing of the grazing season, and as a result the proportion of cattle that are marketed as calves versus every bit yearlings. For case, several meg cattle normally are grazed on small grain pastures in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas in the autumn and wintertime each year. In the absenteeism of adequate rainfall, poor fodder yield may dictate premature termination of the grazing season, in which case cattle are transferred to feedlots to be fed. The same is true for native grass pastures that are grazed in the spring, summertime, and autumn. Drought weather condition can strength producers to market cattle early, as they frequently accept limited feed reserves. Regardless of crusade, the organization of merchandising cattle is very dynamic, responding speedily to marketplace atmospheric condition.
Prices paid for slaughter cattle in the U.S. are influenced by age, quality grade, yield grade, and weight. The USA quality grading organization takes into business relationship historic period, equally determined by os ossification patterns, color of lean tissue, and the amount of intramuscular fatty (marbling). Increased intramuscular fat deposition increases grade, and premiums are paid for cattle that have high intramuscular fat content. Yield grade is a measure of fatness that accounts for increases in fatty within the subcutaneous, intermuscular, and peritoneal regions of the carcass. Animals that deposit excesses of fat in these areas generally have poor cherry meat yield, and prices are discounted accordingly. Weight of carcasses likewise is an important determinant of value, as carcasses that are less than 250 kg or more 430 kg are subject to substantial discounts. Given the high correlation between intramuscular fat and other fatty depots, securing high market value requires that cattle be fed long enough to attain sufficient (merely not excessive) torso fatty, produce carcasses ranging in weight from 250 to 430 kg, and practise so at fewer than 30 months of age. Consequently, at that place are limitations with respect to the ability to shift cattle into dissimilar production scenarios. For example, cattle that are heavily influenced by British-breed ancestry often are smaller framed, and therefore benefit from extended growing programs that allow for skeletal growth and musculus deposition before fattening, thereby ensuring that they attain desired market place weights at appropriate fatness. Initiating the feedlot phase besides early in the life of the animals can predispose them to premature fattening, low carcass weights, or both. This is particularly true for heifers, which comprise a substantial portion of the fed cattle population in the United states. Alternatively, large-framed phenotypes that are typical of breeds from continental Europe can produce carcasses with excessive weights if grown for extended periods of time before finishing in feedlots. These animals are well-suited to the calf-fed feedlot system in which they are placed into feedlots direct after weaning.
The segmented nature of the beef industry in the Usa is an of import distinction from the vertical integration commonly associated with other meat brute product systems such as pork and poultry. While there is a relative absenteeism of vertical integration in the beef supply chain, there are increasingly attempts for producers representing the various product segments to align vertically with other segments via supply agreements. The value of, or necessity for, vertical alignment is particularly evident with branded beef programs. For example, marketing of some branded beef products is based on the premise of no antibiotic or steroidal hormone use throughout the lifetime of the animate being, requiring that purveyors accept command over product methods employed through each phase of product in club to ensure compliance. This often is accomplished using supply agreements that reward producers with premiums for producing animals that meet specifications of the branded beef program.
Utilize OF GROWTH PROMOTING TECHNOLOGIES IN U.S. Beefiness PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Beef producers in the United states historically have been very applied science driven. Examples of this include strategic supplementation of fodder-based diets to fulfill animal requirements for poly peptide, energy, vitamins, or minerals. Several key classes of growth promotants also are used widely, either as feed additives or as hormone-impregnated implants that are inserted beneath the peel of the ears.
Steroidal-based growth implants have been used in the USA for decades, thus making it possible to regain some of the growth-promoting effects of endogenous hormones that are lost every bit a effect of castration. Implants employ estrogenic (estradiol or zeranol) and androgenic (testosterone or trenbolone acetate) components, or combinations thereof. Steroidal implants stimulate feed intake and poly peptide deposition, and accept dramatic bear on on cattle performance and efficiency of feed utilization. Their employ is very widespread, encompassing both growing and finishing phases of product. They are nearly heavily used in confinement operations, including backgrounding operations and feedlots. Notable exceptions are branded beef programs that disqualify their utilise, such every bit natural, organic, or not-hormone treated cattle programs aimed at specific value-added markets.
Similarly, antibiotics have been widely used in USA cattle production systems. Ionophore antibiotics, the most common of which are monensin and lasalocid, are used widely for beef production in the Usa, both for command of coccidiosis and for improving feed efficiency. Feed additive forms of tetracyclines and macrolide antibiotics have been used extensively in the United States. Starting in January, 2017, the USA Food and Drug Assistants imposed new regulations that prohibit sub-therapeutic feeding of medically-important antibiotics [six], which includes oxtetracyline, chlortetracycline, and the macrolide antibiotic, tylosin. These drugs at present are restricted for use only in the treatment or prevention of affliction, and must be prescribed by a veterinarian. Changes in the regulatory status of these compounds has spawned an unprecedented interest in alternative product methods and research aimed at reducing or eliminating antibiotics from nutrient animal product systems, particularly for compounds that are accounted medically of import for human wellness. Essential oils, minerals, prebiotics, and probiotics are amid the many product categories that are now being evaluated as alternatives to traditional antibiotics for promotion of growth and efficiency.
Beta adrenergic receptor agonists are used extensively in diets of feedlot cattle to stimulate muscle accretion. Beta agonists are non-steroidal, and they stimulate musculus accretion by increasing poly peptide synthesis and decreasing protein catabolism. The beta adrenergic agonist, ractopamine hydrochloride, was approved for use in cattle starting in 2003. Zilpaterol was approved for apply in the USA in 2008, and though more stiff than ractopamine, zilpaterol it is now seldom used due to restrictions imposed by major abattoir companies. Ractopamine is administered to cattle during the final 28 to 42 days before slaughter, and though the verbal number of cattle fed ractopamine is non known, it is used past the vast bulk of USA feedlots. A contempo survey of feedlot nutritionists [vii] revealed that approximately 85% of feedlots represented in the survey employ beta agonists.
Synthetic progestin (melengestrol acetate) is fed to synchro nize estrus in convenance herds, specially where bogus insemination is used. It is estimated that fewer than 10% of beef females are bred past artificial insemination, so the greatest utilize of synthetic progestin is in feedlots, where they are included in the diet to suppress estrus in heifers that are fed in confinement for slaughter. Feeding progestin aids in minimizing physical injuries attributable to sexual behaviors in which animals mount 1 another, and as well improves efficiency of feed utilization. Melengestrol acetate is non approved for use in male person bovines.
THE FEEDLOT SECTOR
The most recent census of agriculture [3] reported an estimated 26,586 feedlots in the USA. Of these, approximately 61% have fewer than 100 cattle. Approximately 77% of cattle were produced in feedlots with capacity greater than 1,000 animals. These feedlots exist throughout the USA, but past far the heaviest concentration of cattle finishing occurs in the Great Plains region, which is mostly characterized by a semi-arid, temperate climate that is well-suited to cattle production. Approximately two thirds of U.s.a. feedlot cattle production is full-bodied inside the states of Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas. Logically, large abattoirs as well are concentrated within this region. Crop product in this geography is heavily dependent on groundwater from the underlying Ogallala aquifer, which is used extensively for irrigation of corn, wheat, sorghum, and other crops.
FEEDLOT FINISHING DIETS
Energy content of finishing diets, expressed as cyberspace energy for proceeds (NEm), typically ranges from i.fifty to 1.54 Mcal/kg. Consequently, diets of feedlot cattle consist primarily of cereal grains and cereal grain byproducts. Corn is past far the predominant cereal grain. Wheat, which mostly is regarded as a human food crop, frequently is used to readapt a portion of corn in feedlot diets. Its use typically is restricted to sure times of the year when wheat prices are low in comparison to corn, such as immediately post-obit wheat harvest. Wheat and barley are, however, the predominant grains used by feedlots in the Pacific Northwest. Sorghum is an of import cereal crop produced in the semi-arid states of Kansas and Texas, and to a lesser extent Oklahoma, Colorado, South Dakota, and Nebraska. Though regarded every bit being nutritionally inferior to corn, it too is incorporated into feedlot diets when economical conditions favor its utilise.
Feedlots are opportunistic users of a broad range of by product energy feeds. Cereal grain byproducts have become increasingly of import as staples of feedlot cattle diets, particularly in the interior of the continental USA where corn and sorghum production prevail. The most of import of these is distiller's grain, which is a byproduct of fuel ethanol product from cereal grains. Distiller's grains can be fed either as moisture or dried co-products, the grade of which is dictated by proximity of feedlots to ethanol production facilities. Growth of the fuel ethanol industry between 2000 and 2007 represented an unprecedented period of change for the U.s. beefiness manufacture, during which traditional feedstuffs (i.east. grains) reached historically high prices while distiller'southward grains increased dramatically in abundance. This was cause for major shifts in composition of feedlot diets. Moisture corn gluten feed (approximately 60% dry matter), which is derived as a byproduct from the production of corn sweeteners and starches, also is widely used in the feedlot sector. Distiller'southward grains, gluten feed, and other byproducts almost commonly comprise betwixt x% and 40% of the diet dry out matter for feedlot cattle. Large differentials in pricing between grain and grain byproducts occasionally dictate much greater rates of inclusion, with concentrations of byproducts reaching 70% or more of diet dry out thing in some circumstances. Other byproducts are used likewise, including cull potatoes or potato processing wastes (predominantly in the Pacific Northwest), fruit and vegetable byproducts, byproducts from sugar refining, and co-products derived from milling of wheat and processing of soybeans. Many of these byproduct feeds likewise comprise intermediate to high concentrations of protein, thus making information technology possible to readapt all or a portion of the oilseed meals (soybean, cottonseed, sunflower, canola, and others) traditionally used to satisfy protein requirements of cattle. Consequently, dietary poly peptide frequently is fed in excess, which has potentially important ecology implications. Byproduct feeds typically contain more phosphorus than the cereal grains that they supercede, farther contributing to environmental challenges associated with confined animal feeding operations.
Forages normally constitute a relatively small fraction of feedlot diets, and are used primarily to promote digestive health. Alfalfa hay and corn silage are the nigh commonly used roughages. Increased reliance on byproduct feeds in contempo years has fabricated it economically feasible to use low protein roughages in feedlot diets, including corn stalks, wheat harbinger, and other depression-value crop residues. Fodder content of finishing diets typically is in the range of half-dozen% to 12% [vii].
PRODUCTION AND DISPOSITION OF Beefiness
The objective of Us feedlots is to produce beef from young cattle (<30 months of age) with ample tenderness and with relatively loftier intramuscular fat content. The USA organisation of beef quality grading rewards feedlots for production of highly marbled beef, but also discourages over-fattening of cattle through classification of carcasses into 1 of five yield grade categories. Animals that yield carcasses in college yield grade categories (4 or v) generally incur heavy market penalties. Size of carcasses also is important, and butchery companies mostly apply heavy cost discounts for undersized (<250 kg) or oversized (>430 kg) carcasses.
The beef slaughter manufacture in the USA is heavily concen trated, with but 4 firms accounting for more 80% of the beefiness slaughter capacity. Almost of the beef they process is distributed in boxed grade, a significant portion of which is exported to other countries. Domestic beef production in 2017 was 11.98 meg metric tonnes, approximately 10.6% (1.26 meg tonnes) of which was exported [eight], either as variety meets or as high-quality beefiness products. The largest book export markets for USA beef in 2017 were Japan (24.3%); Mexico (18.8%); South Korea (14.6%); Hong Kong (10.4%), Canada (9.ii%); and Taiwan (3.5%). Exports were roughly offset by imports (i.36 million tonnes), with Canada (24.vii%), Australia (23.2%); Mexico (xix.ii%), and New Zealand (18.6%) making up the vast majority of imported beef (and veal) products.
Per capita beefiness consumption of beef in the United states in 2017 was 25.eight kg [9], and consumption is expected to exist slightly higher or stable through 2027 [10]. It is estimated that 57% of the beef consumed is in the form of ground products [11]. Imported products, especially from Commonwealth of australia, are of import in fulfilling the increasing demand for ground beef products.
FUTURE TRENDS IN THE BEEF Manufacture
Domestic demand for beef products is expected to remain stable. Consequently, export markets are increasingly recognized equally being an of import target for increasing demand for Us beef products. OECD/FAO estimates of 1.5% annual increases in demand for meat products through 2026 [10] are cause for optimism among producers. Though information technology is projected that well-nigh of this need will be fulfilled by increases in production of poultry products, it is likely that all meat sectors will do good to some degree.
In that location is a growing trend within the USA for big purveyors of meat products to exert influence on livestock producers, encouraging them to implement product practices that are perceived as existence in line with consumer interests. Among the major players are shambles companies, wholesalers, grocery chains, the hotel and eating place industries, and others. Topics such as sustainability, brute welfare/wellbeing, environmental compatibility, traceability, antimicrobial resistance, utilise of exogenous growth promotants, natural or organic production systems, and other areas are becoming increasingly common, and take emerged equally fundamental elements in marketing campaigns adopted past many major food companies. This evolution in thinking challenges conventional food animate being production systems, and is forcing rapid alter in product practices. As a issue, the focal points of many research programs beyond the The states have shifted to encompass these topics.
USA beefiness producers have a long history of adapting chop-chop to irresolute market signals in an try to capture added value. Branded beef programs, which constitute a class of vertical integration or alignment, are relatively commonplace. Perhaps the best known of these is the Certified Angus Beef program, which since its inception in 1978 has arguably transformed the U.s.a. beef industry as a result of substantial premiums paid to cattle producers for producing beef that fulfills certain quality standards. In excess of 60% of cattle fed in the Usa at present have some proportion of Angus beginnings, which is testimony to the success of the plan that is at present recognized globally as being consistent with quality. Numerous other programs have been spawned in the terminal twoscore years, with the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Marketing Service now listing xc different federal certification programs for beef, 80 of which were conceived in the year 2000 or afterward. Scores of other non-certified branding programs have appeared at the consumer level also, touting features such as omega-3 enrichment of beef; antibiotic free; hormone-gratis; organic feeding programs; grass-fed programs, and others that are distinguished past the region of production, specific producers, or other features. All are aimed at enhancing value by advert appealing attributes for which consumers are willing to pay price premiums. As branding programs go more prevalent, vertical alignment between various sectors of the beef industry also is increasingly common. A form of symbiosis can develop in which large production units or consortia of producers align themselves with retail outlets, hotels, or large restaurant companies to ensure ongoing need or to capture market premiums for their products. In plow, the food companies benefit through supply agreements that guarantee availability or pricing of products that are produced to meet certain standards that can embrace beef quality, meat composition (every bit in the instance of omega-3 enrichment), environmental compatibility, sustainability, or production practices that exclude antibiotics and(or) growth promotants, and numerous other marketable concepts.
Traceability programs have been a topic of much discus sion for the past two decades. This discussion intensified immediately following events in Dec of 2003 surrounding importation of a choose dairy cow from Canada that was discovered to have been infected with bovine spongiform encephalopathy. Several primal export markets subsequently were closed to The states beefiness, which had devastating fiscal consequences for beefiness producers and abattoir companies in the USA. Producer organizations are, for the near part, however, opposed to development of a federally-mandated traceability organisation, opting instead for a voluntary organisation of brute identification and traceability that is market-driven.
In January of 2017 the USA Nutrient and Drug assistants fully enacted revised regulations aimed at decreasing use of medically-important antibiotics in food brute production systems [vi]. Fundamental to the new regulations is the necessity for veterinary oversight of antibody use. Drugs that previously were available "over the counter" now tin can be used but with the written prescription of a licensed veterinarian. Since the regulations took outcome, pharmaceutical companies that produce affected drug compounds take cited sharp declines in need for their products, meat purveyors and retailers have publicly announced timelines for procurement of products produced without antibiotics, and major beef producers take announced strategies that will be (or have been) implemented to subtract antibody utilize. The "anti" antibody movement is thus well underway, and information technology has given birth to an era of research pertaining to identification of antibiotic alternatives for use in livestock. Much of our own research at Kansas Country University is devoted to the task of finding culling strategies for mitigation of digestive disorders or infectious diseases, but without use of antibiotics. Whether as a result of market pressures or regulatory changes, it seems inevitable that beef production systems of the future are apt to utilise production practices that forestall utilise of antibiotics.
Probiotics are becoming increasingly prevalent in the beefiness production chain, but especially feedlot systems. It has been estimated that approximately threescore% of feedlot cattle receive some form of probiotic [seven]. Often these consist of Lactobacillus species, fed lone or in combination with Propionibacterium. Normalization of gastrointestinal tract function and competitive inhibition of food-borne pathogens, such every bit E. coli O157:H7 [12], are the virtually commonly cited reasons for their use. More recently, Megasphaera elsdenii, a lactate-utilizing bacteria, has been introduced into the market. Reported benefits include abstention of ruminal acidosis and the ability to transition more than apace to high-concentrate diets [13], likewise as improved cattle functioning and decreased incidence of disease in immature cattle subsequently inflow in feedlots [fourteen]. Anecdotal bear witness from commercial abattoirs has suggested it may also decrease fecal shedding of food-borne pathogens, but this effect has yet to be validated in a controlled research experiment.
Plants extracts equally feed additives constitutes some other active area of research, with the notion that these compounds may exist useful as substitutes for conventional antimicrobial drugs every bit a issue of their antimicrobial activities. Several institute extracts have been studied in depth, including beta acids of hops [15], menthol [16], eugenol [17], cinnamaldehyde [18], limonene [xix], and others, and their bear on on gut microflora is in some cases well documented. These compounds ofttimes emulate the deportment of traditional antibiotic drugs, owing in role to similarities in chemical structure. Similarly, heavy metals, including the trace minerals copper and zinc, accept been exploited for antibiotic-like furnishings [20], peculiarly when used in pigs or poultry, just also in cattle. Zinc is the antimicrobial mineral of choice in cattle due to the relative toxicity of copper, and often it is fed at supra-nutritional concentrations to suppress bacteria that crusade foot-rot (infectious pododermatitis), or to aid in combatting respiratory affliction. Numerous studies have revealed that information technology is possible to co-select for resistance to antimicrobial drugs when leaner are exposed to plant extracts [21] or high concentrations of heavy metals [22,23], fifty-fifty without exposure to the antimicrobial drugs themselves. Given that the basis for excluding antibiotic drugs from the diets of cattle is to avert evolution of antimicrobial resistance in gastrointestinal tract bacteria, it would seem that similar circumspection is warranted in the awarding of plant extracts or heavy metals as antimicrobials, in spite of the fact that they are not marketed specifically as antibiotics.
The USDA does not maintain official statistics on volumes of antibiotic-free, not-hormone treated, or organic beef. In 2012 it was estimated that over 4% of retail foods sold in the U.Due south. were organically produced [24]. Fruits and vegetable led the market place in organic sales, while 3% of meat/poultry/fish were estimated to have been produced organically. According to the Organic Merchandise Association [25], sales of organic meat and poultry surged by 17% in 2016, and total sales were expected to exceed $1 billion dollars for the kickoff time in 2017. Certification of organically produced meats is administered by the USDA, which maintains official standards for organic production practices. Currently, availability of sufficient quantities of certified organic feedstuffs constitutes a major limitation for growth of this segment of the beef manufacture. Several branding programs certified by the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service specify beef equally existence "antibiotic gratis" or "not-hormone treated". Some of these restrict their definition to a specified product phase, while others reflect product practices employed throughout the lifetime of the fauna. There is a sense that demand for this market segment is increasing, but official estimates are non bachelor. Programs for production of cattle without use of hormones, referred to as not-hormone treated cattle, are key to penetrating certain markets, both domestically and internationally. Toll of product mostly is higher for whatever of the specialty programs compared to conventional production systems, and producers must therefore exist rewarded appropriately with cost premiums.
Decision
USA beefiness supply is the product of a multi-segmented industry that is consolidating into larger and larger production units, and is increasingly characterized by vertical alignment amidst industry segments, also every bit with food wholesalers and retailers and the hotel and eatery industries. The industry makes utilize of a wide spectrum of nutritional inputs and animal phenotypes that bridge a broad range of geographies and climates. The manufacture is closely tied to natural grazing resources, also as cereal grains and cereal grain byproducts. Information technology is highly adaptive, responding apace to marketplace signals that reward innovation and alignment with consumer demands. The manufacture makes all-encompassing utilise of a broad range of technologies related to feed processing, identity preservations, and growth promotion. Complexity of beef markets is increasing due to extensive branding efforts and development of niche markets, and need for production of beefiness representing grass-fed, non-hormone, not-antibody, and organic beefiness markets is growing steadily. Maintaining and expanding demand for USA beef likely will necessitate ongoing efforts to develop markets for export, both for multifariousness meats and for high-value cuts of beef.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This is contribution number 18-601-J of the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan.
Footnotes
Conflict OF Interest
We certify that there is no conflict of involvement with whatever financial organisation regarding the cloth discussed in the manuscript.
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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6039332/
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